An Analysis on the Definition of motivation

An Analysis on the Definition of motivation The term motivation is derived from the Latin word for movement (movere), means to move, push or persuade to act for satisfying a need (Butkus Green, 1999) . Atkinson (1964) defines motivation as the contemporary influence on direction, vigor, and persistence of action whereas Vroom (1964) defines it as a process governing choice made by personsamong alternative forms of voluntary activity. Additionally, motivation is concerned with the factors that influence people to behave in certain ways. The three components of motivation as listed by Arnold et al (1991) are: direction what a person is trying to do; effort how hard a person is trying persistence how long a person keeps on trying. Moreover, motivation is also defined as a set of interrelated beliefs and emotions that influence and direct behavior (Wentzel, 1999; see also Green, Martin, Marsh, 2007; Martin, 2007, 2008a, 2008b, in press). They propose that relationships affect achievement motivation by directly influencing motivations constituent beliefs and emotions. Allport (1954) referred past actions that led to positive outcomes would tend to be repeated, whereas past actions that led to negative outcomes would tend to diminish. Skinner (1953) and others argued that, over time, individuals learn contingent relationships between actions and their consequences and that these contingencies guide future behavior. Reinforcement models continue to thrive today as explanatory vehicles for understanding work motivation and job performance, as well as in the workplace in various performance management programs (Komaki, 2003). 2.1 TYPES OF MOTIVATION Motivation at work can take place in two ways. First, people can motivate themselves by seeking, finding and carrying out work that satisfies their needs or leads them to expect that their goals will be achieved. Secondly, people can be motivated by management through such methods as pay, praise, etc. There are two types of motivation as originally identified by Herzberg et al (1957): 2.1.1 Intrinsic motivation the self-generated factors that influence people to behave in a particular way. These factors include responsibility, autonomy, scope to use and develop skills and abilities, interesting and challenging work and opportunities for advancement. Intrinsic motivation as a predictor of performance is strongly supported by research in sports (Callahan et al., 2003 ) and educational settings (Lin et al.,2003; Vansteenkiste et al.,2004; Wang and Guthrie, 2004). Moreover, a few studies have found a positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and work performance in work organizations cited by Gagne and Deci (2005). 2.1.2 Extrinsic motivation what is done to or for people to motivate them? This includes rewards, such as increased pay, praise, or promotion, and punishments, such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticism. Extrinsic motivators can have an immediate and powerful effect, but it will not necessarily last long. 2.2 Evolution of motivation By the 1950s, several new models of work motivation emerged, which collectively have been referred to as content theories, since their principal aim was to identify factors associated with motivation which includes Maslows (1954) Needs theory, which suggests that, as individuals develop, they work their way up a hierarchy based on the fulfillment of a series of prioritized needs, including physiological, safety and security, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. Alderfer (1972) later adapted this model to encompass just three needs: existence, relatedness, and growth. A second need theory of the same era, first introduced by Murray (1938) but more fully developed by McClelland (1961, 1971), ignored the concept of a hierarchy and focused instead on the motivational potency of an array of distinct and clearly defined needs, including achievement, affiliation, power, and autonomy. McClelland argued that, at any given time, individuals possess several often competing needs that serve to motivate behavior when activated. This contrasts with Maslows notion of a steady progression over time up a hypothetical hierarchy as individuals grow and mature. Herzberg (1966; Herzberg, Mausner, Snyderman, 1959) sought to understand how work activities and the nature of ones job influence motivation and performance. In his motivation-hygiene theory, Herzberg argued that work motivation is largely influenced by the extent to which a job is intrinsically challenging and provides opportunities for recognition and reinforcement. Herzberg saw the context surrounding a job (hygiene factors) as being far more temporal in terms of leading to satisfaction and future motivation. Herzberg deserves credit for introducing the field to the role of job design as a key factor in work motivation and job attitudes. In subsequent work, Hackman and Oldham (1976) and others have extended this line of research as it relates to work design, motivation, and job performance, while others, including Deci (1975; Ryan Deci, 2000), have articulated theories focusing specifically on task based intrinsic versus extrinsic factors in motivation (e.g. self-determination theory). 2.3 Models of motivation There are four well-established models of motivation: (1) the rational-economic; (2) the social; (3) the self-actualizing; and (4) the complex models. The first three of these can be regarded as content models of motivation. Content theories of motivation try to explain the factors within persons which motivate them. The complex model introduces some aspects of the process theory of motivation. 2.3.1 The rational-economic model This suggests that people are motivated primarily by economic self-interest, and will act to maximize their own financial and material rewards (F.W Taylor, 1947). Peoples motivation then can be controlled largely by offering or withholding financial rewards. Underlying this model are the assumptions that people are passive, are inclined to assert less rather than more effort, are unwilling to take responsibility, and are interested in work for what they can get out of it financially. 2.3.2 The social model The work of Elton Mayo is famously known as Hawthorne Experiments. This model can be summarized in the following terms (Mayo, 1975): People at work are motivated primarily by social needs, such as the need for friendship and acceptance, and their sense of identity is formed through relationships with other people. As a result of increased mechanization and rationalization, work has lost some of its meaning, and people increasingly seek meaning in social relationships at work. People are more responsive to the pressures of their peer groups at work than to management controls and incentives. People respond when management meets their needs for belonging, acceptance and sense of identity. 2.3.3 The self-actualizing model Maslow (1970) developed the idea of self-actualization needs. According to him self-actualization is the need a person has to fulfil his or her capabilities and potential. The model further indicates that the following motivate people: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Human needs fall into a hierarchy from the most basic physiological needs to needs for self-actualization (Maslow, 1970). As the basic needs are met, energy is released for the satisfaction of higher needs. Everyone seeks a sense of meaning and accomplishment in their work (see Figure 1). Findikci (2006) stated that an individuals level of motivation is dependent on the material and social benefits he/she gains from the institution they work in. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Individuals like to exercise autonomy and independence and to develop skills. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ People are primarily self-motivated and self-controlled. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢There is no inherent conflict between self-actualization and more effective organizational performance. People are happy to integrate their goals with those of the organization. Figure 1 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Source: Abraham H. Maslow Towards a Psychology of Being, D. Van Nostrand Company, 1968 2.3.4 The complex model Schein (1980) argues that the problem with each of the preceding models of human behaviour is their claim to universality and generality. Schein, instead, sees human nature as complex, with human needs and motivations varying according to the different circumstances people face, their life experience, expectations and age. People are motivated to work when they believe that they can get what they want from their jobs. This might include the satisfaction of safety needs, the excitement of doing challenging work, or the ability to set and achieve goals. Schein also introduces the concept of a psychological contract which is essentially a set of expectations on both sides and where a match is important if efforts to improve motivation are likely to be effective. 2.4 Cognitive theory On the other hand, perhaps best known of the cognitive theories is expectancy theory. Expectancy theory derives from the early work of Lewin (1938) and Tolman (1959), who saw behavior as purposeful, goal directed, and largely based on conscious intentions. Vroom (1964) presented the first systematic formulation of expectancy theory as it related to the workplace. He argued that employees tend to rationally evaluate various on-the-job work behaviors (e.g., working harder) and then choose those behaviors they believe will lead to their most valued work-related rewards and outcomes (e.g., a promotion). On the other hand, Porter and Lawler (1968) expanded Vrooms initial work to recognize the role of individual differences (e.g., employee abilities and skills) and role clarity in linking job effort to actual job performance. They also clarified the relationship between performance and subsequent satisfaction, arguing that this relationship is mediated by the extent and quality of the rewards employees receive in exchange for good job performance. That is, if superior performance in the past failed to lead to superior rewards, future employee effort may suffer as incentives and the reward system lose credibility in the employees eyes. Since its initial publication, a number of scholars have worked to extend or further refine the basic cognitive expectancy framework to reflect emerging research findings and new theoretical developments (e.g., Kanfer, 1990; Mitchell, 1997). For example, expectancy theory has been used to study forms of work behavior other than job performance, including employee absenteeism, turnover, and organizational citizenship behavior (Mobley, 1977; Mowday, Porter, Steers, 1982; Organ, 1988; Porter Steers, 1973; Steers Rhodes, 1978). Researchers have also linked group expectations and social influences to individual work motivation decisions (Porter, Lawler, Hackman, 1975). Finally, basic expectancy principles have been incorporated into several emerging models of cross-cultural influences on work motivation and job performance (Bhagat McQuaid, 1982; Earley, 1997; Steers Sanchez-Runde, 2001; Triandis, 1995). In addition to expectancy theory, another cognitive theory of work motivation has been the Equity theory. Adams (1963) introduced equity theory to explain how employees respond both cognitively and behaviorally to perceived unfairness in the workplace (Mowday Colwell, 2003, and Weick, Bougon, Maruyama, 1976). Stajkovic and Luthans (1998, 2003) found considerable support for the role of self-efficacy in determining work-related performance, particularly as moderated by task complexity and locus of control. 2.5 Frederick Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory: Herzberg et al. (1957) argued that satis ¬Ã‚ ers or motivators are closely related to self-actualization needs. Motivators include the work itself, recognition, advancement and responsibility. Motivators are intrinsic factors directly related to the job and largely internal to the individual. Dissatis ¬Ã‚ ers or hygiene factors relate to Maslows lower level needs. These include company policy and administration, salary, working conditions and interpersonal relations. Hygienes are extrinsic factors, which the organization largely determines and improvement in these dissatis ¬Ã‚ ers would remove dissatisfaction, but would not elicit positive motivation. Positive motivation comes only from accomplishing a meaningful and challenging task. Herzberg devised his theory on the question: What do people want from their jobs? Later, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However, their non presence leads to demotivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact. Hertzbergs study is recognized to have some limitations. The results obtained from his study by professional workers may not be applicable to all groups. Moreover, he uses satisfaction and motivation as interchangeable, and there is an embedded assumption that increased satisfaction leads to increased motivation and this is not always the case. Nevertheless, the distinction between satis ¬Ã‚ ers and dissatis ¬Ã‚ ers is useful, and the recognition that some factors contribute to positive motivation while others can only minimize dissatisfaction is important. 2.5.1 Reservations about Herzbergs theory Herzbergs two-factor model has been criticized because no attempt was made to measure the relationship between satisfaction and performance. The Herzberg theory continues to thrive; partly because for the layman it is easy to understand and seems to be based on real-life rather than academic abstraction, and partly because it fits in well with the highly respected ideas of Maslow (1954) and McGregor (1960) in its emphasis on the positive value of the intrinsic motivating factors. 2.6 Financial rewards Lecturers are appointed to a single salary scale. Their position on that scale is determined by their qualifications and experience, and possibly previous salary, at the time of their appointment. Progression through the scale is by annual increments. In some institutions additional increments may be awarded for special achievements. In some subject areas, notably the professional disciplines, it is possible for academic staff to earn additional income by participation in external, income-generating activities, but arrangements surrounding these opportunities vary between institutions. Deeprose (1994) examined that the effective reward system improve employee motivation and increases employee productivity which contribute to better enhanced organizational performance. 2.7 The culture of teaching and higher education Higher education is by culture a developmental environment. All staff have a signi ¬Ã‚ cant role as lecturers, and are subject to the person-to-person pressure to perform that is inherent in this contact. Most staff gain gratification from working with students and witnessing the achievement and development of those students. This is associated with having a professional pride in their work. It is important for them to be accepted by the students when they work as a leader and facilitator. Frustration may develop from dissatis ¬Ã‚ ers which prevent lecturers from doing a good job towards quality education, including poor timetable organization, inadequate maintenance of educational equipment, or too many assorted demands on their time. A key task of the teacher is to ensure the motivation of students (Deniz et al., 2006). Once achieved this links directly to the teachers own motivation level. 2.8 Diversity of lecturer experience and roles It is easy to view the lecturer in higher education as a body, and to seek to introduce motivation and rewards for the body as a whole. It is important to recognize that lecturers are motivated by different factors, depending on their length of service in higher education, their other work experience, their age, their aspirations with respect to career development and the relative priorities which they attach to achievement and social factors, such as their personal life and being accepted as a team member. 2.9 Strategies for motivation In an environment where there is already a strong culture of quality education, strategies of motivation to support self actualization and growth are strong contenders. These include the following: 2.9.1 Opportunities for personal development It includes: experience in teaching different groups of students; visiting students on work placement; research and publishing activities; consultancy; study for higher degrees; attendance at conferences and workshops; management/team leadership experience; training in teaching and/or management skills. 2.9.2 Managing dissatis ¬Ã‚ ers The manager has a signi ¬Ã‚ cant role in eliminating or reducing dissatis ¬Ã‚ ers. This is often achieved through negotiation and allocation of resources. This must clearly be achieved within organizational constraints, and where it is not possible to modify the dissatis ¬Ã‚ ers, managers should seek to eliminate their effects and communicate the constraints. For example, currently all funding to higher education institutions is based on student numbers. Lecturers need to appreciate that staf ¬Ã‚ ng resources in speci ¬Ã‚ c subject areas are determined by such criteria and not by the number of teaching or contact hours. Communication is necessary to ensure that staff expectations change with the changes in the environment. 2.9.3 The  ¬Ã‚ nancial dimension The usual strategies for  ¬Ã‚ nancial motivation are performance-related pay and promotion. Such strategies are not usually within the control of the individual head of department and will be controlled by institutional norms and Funding Council initiatives. Thus, when the opportunity arises, these strategies can be used by the individual manager to encourage motivation, but their intermittent and uncontrollable nature presents a lot of problems. 2.10 Motivation through Rewards Managers have found that rewards play a significant role in motivating employees to work harder and longer. This section, therefore, attempts to identify the numerous types for rewards that can be administered by managers. There are two types of rewards: Extrinsic and Intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external outcomes granted to someone by others, such as money, employee benefits, promotions, recognition, status symbols, and praise. In other words, this kind of reward is provided by another person or by organizational system to individuals. In contrast, intrinsic reward derives internally from individuals and can be experienced through their work, such as the feelings of competency, sense of accomplishment, personal development and self-esteem. The importance of being self-administered offers great advantages and power of motivating from within. Training and development Training is the systematic modification of behavior through learning which occurs as a result of education, instruction, development and planned experience. Gong et al.(1998) stated that quality starts and improves with training. Hence, training acts as an intrinsic motivator, develops the competences of employees and improves their performance. Garvin (1987) examined the impact of training on performance and found that in manufacturing units, quality oriented and job-specific training helps to achieve higher levels of quality in outputs and productivity. 2.11 Definition of Quality Education Despite the prominence of quality as the motivating factor for educational planning, approaches to quality can vary widely. In fact, quality is mostly used in a detached way, assuming consensus both on what the term means and on the desirability of the various educational aims and approaches promoted under the banner of quality. Whether explicit or implicit, a vision of educational quality is always embedded within countries policies and programs. The term quality is derived from the latin word qualitas, which means the degree of excellence of a thing (Oxford Dictionary, 2003). Article 29 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child states that States are requested to recognize that education should be directed at developing the childs personality and talents, preparing the child for active life as an adult, fostering respect for basic human rights and developing respect for the childs own cultural and national values and those of others (United Nations, 1989). Therefore, everyone has the right not only to receive education, but also to receive education of high quality. Quality of education has been described as the success with which an institution provides educational environments which enable students effectively to achieve worthwhile learning goals including appropriate academic standards (Gordon and Partington, 1993). Nightingale and ONeil (1994) suggest that in looking for a meaningful definition of quality in learning among higher education, education should be looked as a transformative process involving a change in roles of the student and the teacher, and geared to an assumption of quality being part of a continuous improvement process. Teaching Experience other studies of the effects of teacher on student learning have found a relationship between teachers effectiveness and their years of experience (Hammond, 2000). 2.12 Visions of quality for education Harvey (1995) provides a useful framework for thinking about quality by outlining five goals for education that define the vision of quality within individual systems. Education systems vary in emphasizing a single vision or, more commonly, a mixture of the five goals: Education quality as exceptionality Education quality as consistency Education quality as fitness-for-purpose Education quality as value for money Education quality as transformative potential (Kubow and Fossum 2003). 2.13 Approaches to quality education The 2005 EFA Monitoring Report: The Quality Imperative points out that agreement about the objectives and aims of education will frame any discussion of quality and that such agreement embodies moral, political, and epistemological issues that are frequently invisible or ignored (UNESCO 2004, p. 37). The report further emphasizes that different notions of quality are associated with different educational traditions and approaches: 2.13.1 The humanist approach It is one of the precursors of constructivism, focuses on learners constructing their own meanings and integrating theory and practice as a basis for social action. Quality within this tradition is interpreted as the extent to which learners translate learning into social action. 2.13.2 The behaviorist approach It means heading in another direction and assumes that students must be led and their behavior controlled to specific ends, with quality measured in precise, incremental learning terms. 2.13.3 Critical approaches On the other hand, focus on inequality in access to and outcomes of education and on educations role in legitimising and reproducing existing social structures. Quality education within this tradition is seen as prompting social change, encouraging critical analysis of social power relations, and ensuring that learners participate actively in the design of their learning experience. 2.13.4 Indigenous approaches This approach to quality reject mainstream education imported from the centers of power, assure relevance to local content, and include the knowledge of the whole community (UNESCO 2004, pp. 32-35). Whatever the broader vision of quality, most countries policies define two key elements as the basis of quality: students cognitive development and social/creative/ emotional development. (UNESCO 2004, p.29). Sculleys (1988) prediction about the global renaissance of higher education is reassuring since he sees every person and every culture, as well as every countrys educational institutions, having much to teach and much to learn. 2.14 Quality Assurance in Tertiary Education The quality assurance in tertiary education has been described by Bogue and Saunders (1992) as a process and practice primarily concerned with conformance to mission speci ¬Ã‚ cations and goal achievement within the publicly accepted standards of accountability and integrity. Frazer (1992), who has classi ¬Ã‚ ed prevailing quality assurance systems, on the basis of their ownership and funding, into university-owned, governmental and non-governmental systems, adopted another approach. From this perspective, ownership is seen to in ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡uence the level of institutional autonomy fostered, the value placed on academic freedom, the extent of external political control and the extent of faculty commitment to the quality assurance systems (Gaither, 1998). Tertiary institutions are not unlike other organisations. They rely on quality of service to their customers, i.e. students, in order to remain competitive. Quality in tertiary education is not interested only in tangibles such as lecture venues, course materials and the like. It is also heavily dependent on the institutions human resources to provide a good service to its customers (Yeo, 2009). Acosta (2000) states that university teaching usually takes the form of one of three methods: the lecture; tutorial work; and practical and projects. In order to stimulate involvement in class discussions some lecturers employ formal mechanisms for grading participation (Maznevski, 1996). However, lecturers should explain to students the value of engaging in a brainstorming phase as a stepping stone towards class discussion. Chong and Farago (1999) claimed that visual images are idea catalysts for discussion in the multicultural classroom and hence a key element in the transformation process toward inclusive instruction, thus making an effort to search for relevant video-clips to be shown during workshops, tools which are very powerful in triggering class debates. High-quality interaction and active participation, however, cannot be achieved through good intentions, or mere administrative decree, alone. Good relationships among students and a good rapport between the students and the lecturer are a conditio sine qua non to creating an environment of comfort, trust and mutual respect, in which open discussion, exchange and examination of ideas, as well as active participation are not inhibited by fear (Billingsley, 1999). Tompson and Tompson (1996) observed, the idea that of without trusting relationships learning is stunted  ¬Ã‚ nds theoretical support in Maslows model of hierarchy of needs, according to which individuals are unlikely to engage in self-actualization activities, such as challenging intellectual debates and discussions, unless security, social and esteem needs have already been satisfied. They also suggested a number of strategies such as ice-breaking activities, clear communication, non-threatening atmosphere etc aimed at facilitating students adjustment and social integration and hence at fostering trusting relationships across differences. 2.16 Learning and teaching styles When considering the quality of teaching in higher education, one needs to resist the temptation of seeking simplistic and single dimensional classifications, rankings and explanations. The notion of quality is not a simple one; rather it is problematic, contested and multidimensional and requires examination at institutional, departmental and individual levels (Elton, 1998). It has been argued that many of the factors contributing to high quality education are related to particular teaching and learning styles. The empirical work of Lammers and Murphy (2002), who studied the delivery of sessions in a range of academic disciplines in a US university, indicated that lecturers had a role in giving information. Effective higher education involves the appropriate blend of physical factors such as the course characteristics and classroom arrangement and instructor factors such as enthusiasm, expertise and teaching style. Many students usually value lecturers who are encouraging, constructive and positive and transmit enthusiasm for their subject. Other key style factors which are crucial to the complex interactions of higher education are considered to be democratic participation and transformative, collaborative and critical learning that values and encourages diversity (DAndrea and Gosling, 2001). 2.17 The student/ lecturer relationship Andreson (2000) emphasises on the importance of interactions and stresses that students engagement with the subject and the passion and enthusiasm conveyed to them by lecturers. This passion and enthusiasm helps to demonstrate to students that the lecturer cares about them and that there is concern about their intellectual growth. However, there are worries amongst many academics that the increase in student numbers in higher education (Gibbs, 2001), with the consequent greater use of e-learning and resource-based learning, will adversely affect the student/lecturer relationship. This is because it is considered to be far more difficult to impart enthusiasm and passion through a computer programme than it is with face-to-face contact (Nixon et al., 1998). Andreson (2000) and Nixon et al. (1998) also argue that the nexus between teaching and research is highly influential. Research provides an added dimension to teaching and allows the development of a collaborative relationship between lecturer and students within a learning community. In such a community the subject is therefore more likely to be accessible and transparent to the student. Hill and MacGregor (1998) similarly found that students are greatly supported by those lecturers who are an integral part of their learning experiences and who actively collaborate in the learning process. The importance of lecturer/student interaction and how students welcome lecturers who are easy to be with and who help them to learn is essential. Morton-Cooper and Palmer (1993) argue that students particularly value traits of responsiveness and trustworthiness in their lecturers. On the other hand, Rowland et al. (1998) reject the notion of an automatic synergistic relationship between teaching and research, arguing that they do not necessarily complement each other. They identified a reconceptualisation of the role of academic staff with an increasing separation of research and teaching. This has been largely due to differential funding and an emphasis on research and teaching as two distinct and unrelated functions. This dichotomy has developed through the financial imperative of achieving the highest possible research assessment exercise scores and, contrarily the exhortations of staff development and education development units for staff to improve their teaching skills. Elton (1998) regards high teaching quality as quite essential to excellence in higher education. He argues that there has to be change in attitudes amongst certain academics who believe that their main task is to profess their discipline. Such academics consider

Coping with Stress Essay

This project will take an issue that is very prominent in today’s society and attempt to look, in detail, how families of military war casualties are coping with the death of their loved ones and which coping strategies seem to be most influential in helping them get back to leading a life that closely resembles what they had before loss. This topic of military coping is important, especially in this time, because there have been so many casualties due to the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan (see Appendix A) By looking at these conflicts, but also those such as the Vietnam War and the Gulf War, we would essentially hope to find common themes or strategies that make coping just a little bit easier for those who are left on the home front. This topic is important to investigate because of the amount of people affected each day by military death- the total deaths are in the thousands and rising every moment. War is a phenomenon that is not going to be disappearing anytime soon, and if there is a way to help those being influenced by tragedy in a more efficient and effectual way, the benefits are immense. The audience for this study is most likely going to be students, but there is also the potential for the military to take an interest in order to help the families of the victims. Mental health counselors, community counselors and psychiatrists may find the information  from the study helpful because of the implications it will have on how people deal with death and how it may be possible to engage those dealing with death in better coping strategies. Much of what has been studied in the realm of coping and stress management has been done with the focus on the individual and how people deal with stress in general. This begs the question â€Å"what is stress?†. Stress is most commonly defined as a physical, mental, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension, and for the sake of this study that is the way it would be defined. Many researchers still feel that the term stress is highly ambiguous because there can be so many different levels. Stress can be caused by an event such as abuse, a natural disaster, an attack, a life threatening ordeal, or even just a dramatic unexpected change in lifestyle. Most of these topics have been studied, and through looking at this previous research, it is seen how very few researchers focus on how people cope with the stress of losing a loved one to an event such as war. Perhaps documentation of how people have coped with death throughout history is rare, or perhaps there has just not been a lot of studies done on the topic. When searching keywords such as â€Å"coping†, â€Å"death†, and â€Å"military† into a psychological search engine, only seven results were retrieved, and of those seven, there were only two or three that seemed they would benefit this research positively. These few articles that that were found that generally focused on post-traumatic- stress disorder, or PSTD. They studied (both quantitatively and qualitatively) how families felt they were influenced by the war, whether it by deployment, responsibility at home, the unknown, and of course, death. It was found that it is indeed important to look at everyone involved and try to work together to get through the trauma of war. The researches should not forget parent-child relations and should not forget that it takes time and understanding of an individual to help cope with the loss (Dekel et al., 2010, page). The other article that was looked at did not focus so much on a study, but the history of coping with loss during both war and peace times. It covered a broad range of time and explained how the military had continually developed counseling and groups to help those who were affected by the war. It looks at how the loss can be integrated into one’s life as a whole, and is looked at as positive for the  soldier (Bartone et al., 1994, page). This suggestion for coping, also known as hardiness in another article, seems to be a reoccurring idea when coping with trauma. If one can integrate the tragic event into their life and think of positive ways to let it influence them, they seem to be more likely to be able to deal with their stress or loss. Optimism was another element of this article, focusing on how if people believe that something is going to be positive, it has a greater impact on how they deal with stress (Maddi et al., 1999, page). Yet another strategy that can be involved with coping is forgiving. It is often through the idea of forgiving the person or people that harmed someone important to you can be a strong motivator to getting over a stressful situation because it allows some sort of closure and understanding (Hodgson et al., 2007, page). All of these factors- hardiness, forgiveness, empathy- must be taken into consideration while doing this research on coping. Historically research often focused on negative consequences of specific factors. We all know the effect that trauma, poverty, abuse, divorce, and other factors of such sort have on psychological development and what life long effects it has for an individual. In the last 20 to 30 years researchers finally began to shift their focus on resiliency and how people develop positive coping skills despite adverse life events. â€Å"The recent broadening of coping theory might be a reaction to to earlier conceptualizations of coping that neglected to include such aspects as goals, purpose, and meaning†. (Schwarzer & Luszczynska, 2008, p22) People want to feel successful in their lives and will look for opportunities for growth. They work hard for â€Å"more resources, desire to maximize gains, and build up resistance factors either to ward off future crisis or to grow and cultivate their capabilities for their own sake† (Schwarzer & Luszczynska, 2008, p22). Resilience studies with children and adolescents have identified the following major factors to play a role in buffering how they cope with stress and trauma: IQ, parental quality, connection to other competent adults, internal locust of control, and social skills (Tiet et al., 1998, p1191). In addition there have been many studies that focused on gender  differences when coping with stress and this are well documented when it comes to adults. â€Å"Research concerning gender differences that may influence coping in children and adolescents revealed mixed results.† (Eschenbeck et al., 2007, p18) This could be attributed to level of development, environmental factors, and gender socialization. The study completed by Eschenbeck and coleagues (2007) however demonstrated that â€Å"girls scored higher in seeking social support and problem solving† (Eschenbeck et al., 2007, p20). Other studies also identified that social supports and problem solving skills were most influential factors in coping with adverse life events and linked these factors with â€Å"greater social competence and fewer internalizing and externalizing behavior problems† (Clarke, 2006, p12) for children and adolescents. Children in military families are more often exposed to stressful situations. Yet according to reports from counselors and other school personnel military children tend to be resilient. â€Å" They are used to changing schools, enduring long separations from a parent, and saying goodbye to old friends and making new ones.† (Hardy, 2006, p11) These children often are being taken care of by family members other than their mothers and fathers, such as aunts, uncles, grandparents, or close family friends. They may experience relationship conflicts within the setting of their families as the boundaries of the family is shifted due to temporary and permanent losses. â€Å"The effects of this kind of loss are displayed in ways that potentially impede successful adolescent development.† (Huebner et al., 2007, p121) Much of the work with these youths have been focused on concept of fostering resiliency. This approach focuses on â€Å"(a) finding meaning, (b) tempering mastery, (c) reconstructing identity, (d) normalizing ambivalence, (e) revising attachment, and (f) discovering hope† (Huebner et al., 2007 p 120). It seems to be that choosing to research along the lines of how military death influences families will be a topic that has been studied little before, and thus hopefully the information that we gather will be helpful in organizing more constructive ways for families to cope with loss. Study Design It was determined that the setting for the research project would be twenty families with adolescents ages 12-18 chosen from the upstate New York region (Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse). The families selected would be those who have lost someone in the war within the last year. We would gather information through the use of personal interviews, family interviews, group discussions and observation. Using qualitative methods in this research will be more beneficial because it will better help us understand what people are directly feeling- we will be able to see their reactions and work with them and empathize with them to hopefully make them feel more comfortable. Using qualitative studies will also help us to see the reactions of those in the groups and if there are certain individuals who benefit from the interaction with others. We will also be able to better compare the depth of grief and the coping strategies to the others in the groups. Since it would be necessary to see how coping skills develop over a period of time, it seems that this study would be longitudinal, over the period of 6 months to a year. This would help us to see the progress of the individuals and of families in their ability to cope with having lost someone. Analysis of the study will be based on how well individuals and families are able to overcome loss and what social factors allowed them to get to a more stable state of being. To figure the results we will have looked at how the individual or family functioned when they first learned of the loss compared to how they functioned 6 months to a year down the road. If we have chosen someone who has lost their loved one more than 6 months ago at the beginning of the study, they will be a good point of reference as to where those who more recently lost someone should be in six months. It is easy to see this study in a circular formation due to the fact that deaths are still occurring and there are constantly more people and families to interact with. Potential Limitations The idea behind this research allows many different paths to explore, but that is also a challenge that must be faced. Each term we use in the research has to be clearly defined so that the people we are studying do not  get confused or put off by anything that may be asked. Also, it has to be taken into consideration that many people react different ways to trauma to begin with, and that may be hard to determine at first. Some people may get depressed, others may get angry, and yet others may just try to go on living as they were before. Each person spoken with will have to be individually looked at to determine their premier coping style and from that point progress will have to be determined. The type of death that each soldier faced is yet another factor to consider, as it may be easier for the family to deal with death of someone who was injured and then died from those injuries. If that is the case, there is more of a chance that the family got to say goodbye than if the soldier was killed unexpectedly by enemy troops in another country. One of the other important limitations to consider is the openness of the people and families being interviewed. They may see the death as a private family matter and thus have a hard time letting an outsider into the mix. All of these limitations, though, can hopefully be avoided or at least overcome, with patience, empathy and respect for all involved. References Bartone, P. & Ender, M. (1994). Organizational Responses to Death in the Military. Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D.C. Death Studies, 18, 25- 39. Cameron, A., Palm, K. & Follette, V. (2010). Reaction to stressful life events: What predicts symptom severity? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 645–649. Clarke, Angela (2006). Coping with interpersonal stress and psychosocial health among children and adolescents: a meta analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(1), 11-24. Dekel, R. & Monson, C. (2010). Military-related post-traumatic stress disorder and family relations: Current knowledge and future directions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 303–309. Eschenbeck, H., Kohlmann, C.-W., Lohaus, A. (2007). Gender differences in coping strategies in children and adolescents. Journal of Individual Difference, 28 (1), 18-26. Hardy, L., (2006). When kids lose parents in our war in Iraq. The Education Digest, 72(4), 10-12. Hodgson, L. & Wertheim, E. (2007). Does good emotion management aid forgiving? Multiple dimensions of empathy, emotion management and forgiveness of self and others. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships SAGE Publications (www.sagepublications.com), 24(6), 931–949. Angela J Huebner, Jay A Mancini, Ryan M Wilcox, Saralyn R Grass, & Gabriel A Grass. (2007). Parental Deployment and Youth in Military Families: Exploring Uncertainty and Ambiguous Loss. Family Relations, 56(2), 112-122. Retrieved July 29, 2010, from Platinum Periodicals. (Document ID: 1260882231). Leland, A. & Oboroceanu, M.-J. (2010). American war and military operations casualties: Lists and statistics. Congressional Research Service, 7-5700. Retrieved July 29, 2010 from www.crs.gov (RL32492). Maddi, S. & Hightower, M. (1999). Hardiness and optimism as expressed in coping patterns. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice & Research. 51(2), 95-105. Schwarzer, R., & Luszczynska, A. (2008). The Prevention Researcher, 15(4), 22-24. Tiet, Q. Q., Bird, H. R., Davies, M., Hoven, C., Cohen, P., Jensen, P. S., & Goodman, S. (1998). Adverse life events and resilience. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(11), 1191-1201.

What the In-Crowd Wont Tell You About Flvs American Revolution Essay Samples

What the In-Crowd Won't Tell You About Flvs American Revolution Essay Samples Even its longevity is not so impressive. Between the interwar, there was a wonderful reduction in the rise and development. Together with an expanding education, the cultural diversity is much enjoy a large thriving nation. Writs of assistance' was among the problems that caused rebellion. As most students weren't even born throughout that moment, research would help a good deal. We've got an outstanding opportunity here. It turned out to be a special chance to learn first-hand. Flvs American Revolution Essay Samples Secrets An American Revolution essay isn't a paper which you will write within a week. An individual may speculate that Revolution might not have been avoided in any way. The American Revolution was successful because it led to the introduction of a new nation in the united states. It was a global event. Revolution in the new world is a fantastic topic for a personalized revolution essay. The societies on earth are greatly influenced by both of these significant events. Under the context of revolution as it's understood in class, this is a true revolution. Print several copies and read to learn more concerning the revolution. This draft isn't the last copy because it is going to need fine tuning. Realize that the outline ought to be faced as a working document which will enable for changes and edits throughout the approach. It is among the most commonly read documents of contemporary history. Just take a scenario which you're writing an essay from Tahiti. Then it's a matter of constructing a fast outline of all the data which you have collected about the topic that you pick. Pick a topic that you're passionate about, write a great thesis, create a comprehensive outline and compose a compelling paper. Writing and developing a thesis will take a little bit of time because getting it right is likely to produce the remaining part of the paper a lot simpler to write. Then, the principal differences and similarities between both revolutions will be explained. You are still not sure the radicals have the proper idea. You are also quite suspicious of any revolutionary shift. In order in order to try it, it's important to first understand the motives behind each revolution. As time passes, Washington realized an easy truth. You're a famous son of a rather famous Pennsylvania liberal. Freedom, however brief or insignificant it might seem, can thoroughly alter an individual and a country forever. The continental congress did not have sufficient funding for the war and as a result, the states were organized in militia groups with minimal training. You're very well-known in Pennsylvania and have even enable a polictical office from time to time. Your company is just one of the biggest traders with England. A previous thought on my services. Using Flvs American Revolution Essay Samples The proclamation played a critical role in 1763. The American congress used enlightenment ideas to acquire justification for the demand for independence. You're not totally convinced that independence is the thing to do. Benign neglect'' was an important element of the revolution. You oppose a few of the actions of Parliament but don't support the radicals in any manner. The 3 major monotheistic religions are occasionally described as branches of the identical family tree. In relation to the fashion in which the revolutions were made, both countries differ oppositely. Americans fought to receive their own independence. You're considered a troublemaker even by the folks of Virginia. You are among the richest people in the united states. This expanding dissatisfaction among the folks and their impulse to take control over their own lives and live independently as an individual and as a nation led to the revolt. Suppressing a rebellion in the united states also posed other troubles. For most Americans, the thought of information is the identical idea shared by teachers and scholars around the country and throughout western culture. An individual must be an online source. You've got an outstanding influence among the individuals of Boston.

Analysis Of The Whirlwind The Triumph Of The American...

Lane Truex 1301.5 November 21 2014 Review of: Benson Bobrick, Angel in the Whirlwind: the Triumph of the American Revolution (New York, Penguin, 1997), 553 pp. In the chapter Kings, Parliament, and Inherited Rights, starts off with the quote about the revolution. The revolution was in the mind and the hearts of people, a change in their religious sentiments of their duties and obligations. The evolution of the revolution began was an argument over rights that changed into struggle for power of each party to assert their rights as it understood them, then afterward struggle for empire as Americans began to conceive a more ambitious and independent course for themselves. Americans believe that legally of all parliamentary statutes was measured against the constitution; on that basis, being unrepresented in Parliament, they denied the rights of the body to tax them directly according to the principles of constitutional law. A particular act focused on in the chapter is the Stamp Act, which imposed a stamp tax ranging from one shilling to six on various commercial and legal documents such as wills, mortgages, and college degrees, as well as on newspapers, almanacs, calendars, pamphlets, playing cards and dice. Also the Trade and Navigation Acts was a parliamentary revenue raised in America would make England governors and their appointees independent of local pressure and more faithful enforcing British statutes. These made the colonies more united. Colonies wanted to distanceShow MoreRelatedThe Historiography Of The American Revolution1869 Words   |  8 PagesThe historiography of the American Revolution can be primarily seen in four different perspectives. Founders Chic historians are concerned with the characters of the founding fathers. Loyalist historians focus on the mass exodus of the loyalists before and during the American Revolution. African American historians focus on contributions made by African Americans during the American Revolution, and finally Imperial historians are concerned with the British perspective and British colonial policyRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Betwee n 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesand Paul Buhle, eds., The New Left Revisited David M. Scobey, Empire City: The Making and Meaning of the New York City Landscape Gerda Lerner, Fireweed: A Political Autobiography Allida M. Black, ed., Modern American Queer History Eric Sandweiss, St. Louis: The Evolution of an American Urban Landscape Sam Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past Sharon Hartman Strom, Political Woman: Florence Luscomb and the Legacy of Radical Reform Read MoreConfucianism in Journey to the West31834 Words   |  128 PagesUniversity of Leiden 14 June 2012 Department: Language and Culture of China Course: Visual Political Communication (BA3) Semester: Summer Semester 2011/2012 Lecturer: Florian Schneider Journey to the West A Textual-Visual Discourse Analysis Name: Stefan Ruijsch (Student No. 0620203) Major: Chinese Studies, BA 3 E-mail: s.ruijsch@umail.leidenuniv.nl Phone: 06-48369645 Address: Vrijheidslaan 256, 2321 DP Leiden Word Count: 9,387 Table of Contents page